âBiblical and Pre-Talmudical Data:
The moral and religious training of the people from childhood up was regarded by the Jews from the very beginning of their history as one of the principal objects of life. Of Abraham the Lord says: "I have singled him out [A. and R. V. "known him"] to the end that he may command his children and his household after him that they keep the way of the Lord to do justice and judgment" (Genesis 18:19, Hebr.). All the festivals and ceremonies have for their object the inculcation of religious and moral lessons in the children (Exodus 12:26 et seq.; 13:8,14; Deuteronomy 4:9 et seq.; 6:20 et seq.; 32:7,46). Especially are the fundamentals of the faith coupled with the admonition to teach the children and bring its truths by words and signs constantly and impressively to their consciousness (Deuteronomy 6:7, 9:19).
The whole Law was at an early stage utilized for public instruction. The Deuteronomic law, whatever its contents were, was to be written "very clearly" on large stones on the highways, that all the people might read (Deuteronomy 27:1-8); and while each king or leader was to keep a copy of the Law and read therein all the days of his life (Deuteronomy 17:18; comp. Joshua 1:8), all the people, "the men, women, and the little ones," were to assemble every seventh year at the close of the Sukkot festival to hear and to learn the Law. Out of this Biblical ordinance was evolved the custom of completing one consecutive reading of the Pentateuch at the Sabbath services within every three years (probably seven originally, later three and one-half, finally one year: Schürer, "Gesch." 3d ed., 2:455; see see PENTATEUCH and LITURGY). This custom, however, of reading the Law every Sabbath in public is so old that Josephus ("Contra Ap." 2:17; "Ant." 16:2,2§ 4), Philo ("De Septennario," 6), and Eusebius ("Præparatio Evangelica," 8:7,12) assign its origin to Moses (comp. Acts 15:21).
At any rate "Torah," denoting originally "Law" (Exodus 24:12; Leviticus 6:2, 7:1, 26:46), assumed in the course of time the meaning of "religious teaching" (Deuteronomy 1:5, 4:44; Malachi 2:7; Ps. xix 8; 119:71,174; Proverbs 3:1, 4:2, 6:23, 7:2), and religion to the Jew became the synonym of common instruction. For a long time the priests and Levites, as the keepers of the Law, were the main instructors of the people (Deuteronomy 31:9, 33:10; Jeremiah 2:8, 18:8; Malachi 2:6; 2 Chronicles 17:7; Book of Jubilees, 31:15). According to ancient rabbinical tradition, the tribe of Issachar produced many teachers of the Law (Gen. R. ,; Sifre, Debarim, 354, based on 1 Chronicles 11:33); also the descendants of Jethro the Kenite are singled out as teachers (Mek., Yitro, 2; Ab. R. N. , after 1 Chronicles 2:55).
The recital of the chapters Shema' and Wehayah Im Shamoa' (Deuteronomy 6:4-9, 11:13-21) in the daily liturgy instituted by the founders of the Synagogue impressed each father with the obligation of teaching his children. Josephus ("Contra Ap." 1:12, 2:18-25; "Ant." 4:8, § 12), and Philo ("Legatio ad Caium," 16, 31) point with pride to the fact that Jewish children were from earliest childhood instructed and trained in the Law and the traditions of their fathers. The Books of Wisdom contain many pedagogic rules. Father and mother are regarded as the child's natural instructors (Proverbs 1:8, 4:1, 6:20, 13:1, 31:7; Ecclus. [Sirach] 30:1-13); "fear of the Lord," as the chief part or beginning of knowledge (Proverbs 1:7; comp. 9:10), The application of "the rod of correction" is often recommended (Proverbs 13:24; 19:18; 22:15; 23:13; 29:15,17), though to the intelligent re-proof is better than a hundred stripes (17:10). The chief admonition is to train the child at the right age (22:6), and the child's life itself is to be a continual training (Proverbs 1:2,7,8). The daughters probably remained under the supervision of the mother until their marriage (Song of Solomon 8:5).
From the hands of the parents, whose place in royal houses was taken by tutors (
It is interesting to note that the commandment "teach them diligently to thy children" (Deuteronomy 6:8) was referred to the instruction of pupils (
How old the institution of the
- Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.;
- Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. s.;
- Hamburger, R. B. T. s. Erziehung and Unterricht;
- Schürer, Gesch. 2:3,419-426.
âIn Talmudical Times:
The period of book-learning or of the scribes ("soferim") has received its name from the practise of transcribing and commenting on the Book of the Law. In the latter years of the kingdom of Judah, and more especially under the discipline of the Exile, the religious teachings and the moral principles of the Law and the Prophets had assumed definite shape as the belief and religion of the people. After the end of the Exile it became necessary to preserve these teachings and the documents containing them. The education of the people passed from the hand of the prophet into those of the scribe or "sofer" (Malachi 4:4). This period is introduced by Ezra the Scribe, who is extolled as the "restorer of the Torah" (Suk. 20a); and just as a band of disciples gathered around Samuel, so men gathered around Ezra, who, following Samuel's example, read the Law to the people distinctly and explained its meaning (Nehemiah 8:5 et seq.). Ezra belonged to the priestly caste, to whom the task of education fell from this time forward, "for the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth: for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts" (Malachi 2:7). Indeed, the body of scribes came from among the Levites (Neh. c.; 2 Chronicles 35:3, where the educational activity of the Levites is by an anachronism transferred to an earlier period). The men thus engaged are designated as
The Reform of Simon ben Sheá¹aḥ.
The scribes at first restricted their educational activities to adults, delivering free lectures in synagogues and schools (see BET HA-MIDRASH), while the education of children remained, as in olden times, in the hands of their fathers. But as boys often lacked this advantage, the state employed teachers in Jerusalem (B. B. 21a), to whose care the children from the provinces were entrusted; and as these did not suffice, schools were also established in the country towns. This arrangement must probably be referred to an ordinance of R. Simon b. Sheá¹aḥ (Yer. Ket. , end), who was one of the presidents of the Sanhedrin during the last century of the Jewish state. These district schools were intended only for youths of sixteen and seventeen years of age who could provide for themselves away from home. The high priest Joshua b. Gamla instituted public schools for boys six and seven years of age in all the cities of Palestine, and on this account he was praised as the man who prevented teaching in Israel from being altogether neglected. It was said that no man who pretended to the title "Talmid ḥakam" ought to live in a place where there were no teachers for children (Sanh. 17b). One teacher was employed for every twenty-five boys. If the number reached forty, he was given an assistant ("resh dukna"; B. B. c.). Many rabbinical sayings indicate the extraordinary value placed by the Rabbis on education, on the school, and on the teacher. R. Eleazar b. Shamua' said:
(Ab. 4:12)."Let the honor of thy pupil be as much to thee as thine own, and the honor of thy companion ["ḥaber"] as much as the reverence for thy teacher, and the reverence for thy teacher as much as the reverence for God"
(Peah 1:1)."The study of the Torah outweighs all other religious commands"
"Touch not my anointed [Psalms 105:15]: this refers to the school children: and do not offend my prophets: this refers to the teachers."
(Shab. 119b)."By the breath from the mouth of school children the world is sustained"
(ib.)."Teaching must not be interrupted even for the reestablishment of the sanctuary in Jerusalem"
(Pes. 112a)."Instruct thy son with the assistance of a good text"
(Ḥag. 9:6)."The advantage of reviewing is unlimited: to review 101 times is better than to review 100 times"
(Ned. 36a)."As I have taught you without pay, says God, so must you do likewise"
Education of Women.
The duty to give free instruction refers, however, only to teaching in the academies, not to elementary instruction. Women were excluded from this instruction. While, on the one hand, they were required to be taught the Torah, on the other hand it was said by R. Eleazar that he who instructs his daughter in the Law is like one who teaches her indecorous things (Soá¹ah 3:4). Yet there werealways educated, even learned, women. These principles obtained throughout the Middle Ages. Since religion entered into the whole sphere of life, as in determining the calendar, in agriculture, etc., astronomy and mathematics formed an integral part of instruction. Indeed, it is said that knowledge of these sciences reflected honor upon Israel in the eyes of the nations (Shab. 75a, with reference to Deuteronomy 4:6). Furthermore, it was the duty of a father to let his son learn a trade, not only that he might be able to support himself, but also because a one-sided intellectual occupation with the Torah was not considered to be conducive to success, but rather a drawback from a moral point of view (Ab. 2:2; Ḳid. 29a). According to one opinion, a father was in duty bound to have his son taught even swimming (Ḳid. c.).
With the dissolution of the Jewish state, the Jewish system of education, while preserving intact its main characteristics, began to be differentiated according to the varying surroundings and outward circumstances of the Diaspora. In Egypt and in other countries along the Mediterranean, Judaism succumbed to Hellenism; but in Palestine the former conquered the latter so completely that after the destruction of the Temple the scribes formally banished Greek learning from the Jewish schools (Yer. Peah; B. Ḳ. 82b, 83a; Soá¹ah 41a; Men. 64b, 99b). But this uncompromising attitude toward "alien sciences" has never been adhered to either in principle or in practise. The Middle Ages furnish abundant proofs that the Jews took a large part in the culture and learning of the nations among which they dwelt.
Post-Talmudic Education.
Even after the dissolution of the Jewish state, Palestine remained for some time the seat of the patriarchy, and in consequence the center of Judaism. The most momentous achievement of that period was the final compilation of the Mishnah; and this became the foundation for all the lectures and discussions in the schools. Toward the end of the fifth century this compilation was edited under the name "Gemara" or "Talmud," and became the principal subject for study in the schools of the Diaspora. Babylon contributed largely to the work through its flourishing academies in Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbedita. The schoolhouse ("sidra," from which the presiding officer was called "resh sidra") was visited by hundreds of pupils, who listened all day long to the lecturer or to his interpreter ("meturgeman"). Gatherings, also ("kallah"), which attracted men from far and near, were held in the spring and the fall of the year. At these gatherings lectures were delivered, important decisions, or rules of conduct, were laid down, and rabbis were appointed with certain formalities and ceremonies, which served later as patterns for European universities (compare Jacob Alting," Hebræorum Republica Scholastica," p. 122, Amsterdam, 1652). Discourses, also, called "rigle." were delivered on feast-days. Every community had, in addition to the higher schools ("metidtas"), preparatory or elementary schools (
The contents of the 12-volume Jewish Encyclopedia, which was originally published between 1901-1906. The Jewish Encyclopedia, which recently became part of the public domain, contains over 15,000 articles and illustrations.
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