Garments

—In Biblical Times:

The general Hebrew designation for "costume" is "beged," applied indifferently to the garments of rich and poor, male and female. Other general designations are "keli," "lebush," "malbush," "tilboshet," and also "kesut." An exact description of the successive styles of costume in use among the people of the Bible is impossible, since the material at hand is insufficient.

The earliest garment was the apron around the hips or loins ("ḥagorah" or "ezor"), made, in primitive times, of the skins of animals. This apron developed in course of time into the undergarment ("ketonet" or "kuttonet" = χιτώυ, "tunica"), which was worn next to the skin (Genesis 9:21; 2 Samuel 6:20), and taken off at night (Song of Solomon 5:3). (See See COAT) It seems to have been distinct from the "sedinim" = σιυδόυες (Judges 14:12 et seq.; Isaiah 3:23; Proverbs 31:24), usually designating undergarments of fine linen worn under the ketonet (compare the Assyrian "sudinnu").

Undergarments.

In ancient times undergarments of this kind were held together by a girdle, made of linen (Jeremiah 13:1), leather (2 Kings 1:8), or gold (Daniel 10:5), and called "ḥagor" or "ezor " in the case of the priests (Exodus 28:4 et seq.), or "abneṭ" (Isaiah 22:21) in the case of officials. The original dress of the Israelites changed somewhat under Syrian and Babylonian influence. On Egyptian monuments the Syrians are clad in long, tight-fitting upper garments, striped in blue and dark red, richly embroidered, and in yellow undergarments with tight-fitting sleeves, and tight trousers (compare Joshua 7:21). Trousers, which are now worn in the East, especially by women (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." 4:62), are not mentioned among the appointments of an ordinary wardrobe, but the priests in later times (compare Exodus 20:26) wore a garment resembling modern trousers ("miknasim" or "miknasayim"; Exodus 28:42 et seq., 39:28; Ezekiel 44:18).

Cloak.

A cloak ("me'il") was generally worn over the undergarment (1 Samuel 2:19, 15:27). This, like the me'il of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric, probably imported from Syria. Every respectable man wore generally the upper garment ("simlah") over the ketonet; for any one dressed only in the ketonet was considered naked ("'arom"; 1 Samuel 19:24; Amos 2:16; Isaiah 20:2; Job 22:6, 24:7,10). The fellaheen of modern Palestine wear the "'aba-yah," a cloak usually black, or in black and brown stripes, which corresponds to the (outer) coat of the ancient Israelites.

Upper Garments.

The 'abayah consists of a rectangular piece of woolen cloth, sewed together so that the front and the two openings on the sides for the arms are unstitched. Like the fellah of to-day, so the poor Israelite of ancient times wrapped himself in this garment at night to keep warm (Exodus 22:26; Deuteronomy 24:13). Deuteronomy and the ordinances for the priests command that tassels ("gedilim," and "ẓiẓit") be attached to the corners of the coat (Deuteronomy 22:12; Numbers 15:38 et seq.); and, according to the later interpretation, not given in Deuteronomy, these tassels were to serve the Israelites as a perpetual reminder to keep the commands of Yhwa At the breast the upper garment was arranged in a wide fold ("ḥeḳ; Exodus 4:6), into which idlers put their hands (Psalms 74:11), and which was frequently used as a pocket (2 Kings 4:39; Haggai 2:12). Since the upper garment was in the way when worn at work, it was either left at home or removed by the workman. It was made of the same materials as the lower one, in early times generally of wool, in Palestine of flax also; but later on purple stuff was imported from Phenicia, byssus from Egypt, and artistic weavings and embroideries from Babylonia (Joshua 7:21; Zephaniah 1:8). The nobles often dressed in white (Ecclesiastes 9:8; compare the garments of the priests), but it is probable that gorgeously colored garments, like those found on the Syrian figures in Egyptian monuments, were also much used. According to Deuteronomy 22:11; Leviticus 19:19, garments woven of both wool and linen were forbidden, probably for superstitious reasons (compare Stade's "Zeitschrift," 20:36 et seq.; SHA'AṬNEZ).

At a later period the nobles wore over the upper garment, or in place of it, a wide, many-folded mantle of state ("adderet" or "ma'aṭafah") made of rich material (Isaiah 3:22), imported from Babylon (Joshua 7:21). As costly garments were worn only on special occasions and removed immediately afterward, they were called "maḥalaẓot" (Isaiah 3:22; Zechariah 3:4) or "ḥalifot" (Genesis 45:22; Judges 14:12 et seq.). This was especially the case with garments worn during the service in the Temple, which, having come close to the divinity, had become, figuratively speaking, saturated with the divine effluvium and could easily imperil the wearer. Persons of higher rank, especially the princes, had a great number of these festive garments (2 Kings 10:22), which were taken care of by a special keeper of the wardrobe (compare 2 Kings 22:14). They were not merely for personal wear (Job 27:16), but, as in the East to-day, they were frequently offered as presents (Genesis 45:22; 1 Samuel 18:4; 2 Kings 5:5).

Women's Dress.

The dress of women corresponded in the main to that of the men. They also wore the ketonet and simlah. According to Deuteronomy 22:5, however, there must have been some difference. The garments of the women were probably longer (compare Nahum 3:5; Jeremiah 13:22,26; Isaiah 47:2), provided with sleeves (2 Samuel 13:19), and wider than those of the men, and therefore better adapted to conceal the figure (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." 4:60). The dress of noblewomen was distinguished for its luxury and ornaments (compare Isaiah 3:16 et seq.; Ezekiel 16:10 et seq.), and was even scented with perfumes (Psalms 45:8; Song of Solomon 4:11; compare especially the catalogue in Isaiah 3:16et seq.). The luxury in dress displayed by women in the East at the present day suggests the probability of similarly luxurious habits on the part of their sisters of former times. Niebuhr saw women appear in eight or ten different dresses during one evening. Sandals ("na'alayim") of leather, fastened with a strap ("serok"; Genesis 14:23), were generally worn to protect the feet in summer against the burning sand, and in winter against the damp ground; but they were worn neither in the house nor in the sanctuary (Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15). Otherwise, however, to walk about without sandals was a sign of great poverty (Deuteronomy 25:19) or of deep mourning (2 Samuel 15:30; Ezekiel 24:17,23).

Head-Covering.

Neither the monuments nor the written documents of Biblical times give any information of value concerning head-gear. On the marble relief of Sennacherib the Israelites appear uncovered; and while on the Shalmaneser stele Jehu's ambassadors have head-coverings, these are evidently patterned after the Assyrian fashion. Only one passage of the older literature (1 Kings 20:31) makes mention of "ḥabalim" that are wound around the head; these recall the Syrians on Egyptian monuments, who appear with a rope coiled around their long, flowing hair, as is still the custom here and there in Arabia. This custom, probably a very ancient one, did not long obtain, since it afforded no protection against the sun. It may be assumed, therefore, that even the ancient Hebrews had a style of head-covering still used by the Bedouins. This consists of a square woolen cloth ("kaffiyyah"), folded triangularly, and laid upon the head, over which one corner depends to protect the nape of the neck, while the two side corners are crossed under the chin and also hang down the back. A heavy woolen cord ("'aḳal") holds the cloth firmly on the head. In later times both men and women wore a covering more closely resembling the turban of the modern fellaheen of Palestine.

The cap (ṭaḳiyyah), often the only head-covering worn by boys, is generally made of two or three thicknesses of cotton cloth, intended to protect the rest of the head-covering against perspiration; over this are placed one, and often two, felt caps ("lubbadah"), and then the Turkish national head-covering ("ṭarbush"); finally a fringed cloth of unbleached cotton, a colored figured mandil, a yellow and red striped kaffiyyah, a black cashmere shawl, a piece of white muslin, or a green cloth is wound around this. This style of head-covering not only protects against the sun, but is also an admirable pillow, and serves as a repository for valuable documents (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." 4:57 et seq.). The use of a similar head-covering among the Hebrews seems to be indicated by the noun "ẓanif" (from the verb "ẓanaf"; Job 29:14; Isaiah 3:23), as well as by the verb "ḥabash," applied to the act of arranging the "ẓanif"; for the verb "ḥabash" means literally "to wind around," and the verb "ẓanaf" similarly signifies "to wind into a ball." It is possible that the various classes gradually came to use different forms of the turban.

Veils.

Since the ancient Hebrews evidently knew nothing of the strict separation of men and women customary among the Moslems, the women wore veils only on certain occasions, as on the wedding-day (Genesis 24:65, 29:22 et seq.). Later on, veils and gauze garments, adopted from other nations, apparently came into more general use among the Israelites (compare Isa.3:16 et seq.). The most common term for "veil" is "ẓa'if" (Genesis 24:65), while "re'alot" (Isaiah 3:19) probably designates a veil consisting of two parts, one of which, adjusted above the eyes, was thrown backward over the head and neck, while the other, adjusted below the eyes, hung down over the breast. It does not follow from Exodus 34:33 et seq. that men also wore veils.

Bibliography:

• W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebräischen Archäologie;
• Benzinger, Arch. pp.97 et seq.;
• Weiss, Kostümkunde; Brüll, Trachten der Juden;
• Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl.;
• Biblical World, 1901.

E. G. H.

W. N.

Hellenic Influence.

Costume of German Jews of the Thirteenth Century.(From Herrad von Landsperg, "Luftgarten.")

—In Post-Biblical Times:

The dress indicated in the Talmud does not differ much from that described in the Bible. Rules were given for the order in which the different articles of dress were removed before a bath, and from this can be ascertained the costume of the ordinary Israelite of the time, which consisted, in order of removal, of shoes, head-covering, mantle, girdle, shirt, and finally a vest known by the Greek name "epikarsion" (Derek Ereẓ, Rabbah ).Many, if not most, of the terms applied to articles of dress were derived from the Greek, and it is therefore probable that their form and style were Hellenic. Thus the sagum, or armless mantle of the laborer (Kel. 29:1); the dalmatic of the leisurely classes (Kil. 9:7); the sudarium, or handkerchief (Shab. 3:3; Sanh. 6:1; compare Luke 19:20); the pileum, or felt hat (Niddah 8:1); and the stola (Yoma 7:1) are all spoken of by their Greek names. A more complete enumeration of clothing in Talmudic times is given in Shab. 120a, in which the question is raised as to what clothes may be carried out of a burning house on Sabbath, Rabbi Jose limiting them to eighteen of the more necessary articles. The parallel passage in the Jerusalem Talmud gives different names, which fact points to a difference in costume between Palestine and Babylonia. Most of these names, as well as those in Yer. Kil. 9:4 and in Massek. Ẓiẓit, p. 22, are of Greek origin, and indicate the extent of Hellenic influence on Jewish dress. The Jews even borrowed from the Romans the superstitious practise of drawing on the right shoe first (Derek Ereẓ R.; Shab. 61a), though previously the opposite custom had prevailed among them (Yer. Shab. 6:2). The pænula, a round cape with hood, mentioned in Yer. Ḥag. 1:8, and generally used by day-laborers to protect their tunics from rain and snow, is contrasted with the ṭallit as a Japhetic or foreign garment (Gen. R. ).