Sabbath

The seventh day of the week; the day of rest.

—Biblical Data:

On the completion of His creative work God blessed and hallowed the seventh day as the Sabbath (Genesis 2:1-3). The Decalogue in Exodus (20:8) reverts to this fact as the reason for the commandment to "remember" the Sabbath day to keep it holy. The Sabbath is recognized in the account of the gathering of the manna; a double portion was gathered on the previous day, and the extra supply gathered for consumption on the Sabbath, when no manna descended, did not spoil (16:22-30). The Sabbath is a sign between Yhwh and Israel, an everlasting covenant (21:13). Death or excision (31:14,15) was the penalty for its profanation by work. An instance of this is afforded by the case of the man who gathered sticks on the Sabbath and was condemned to die by lapidation (Numbers 15:32-36). Work is prohibited, even during harvest-time (Exodus 34:21), and is declared to be a profanation of the holy Sabbath; and the kindling of fire in the habitations is especially interdicted (Exodus 35:3).

In the see see DECALOGUE as contained in Deuteronomy (, 12 et seq.) the observance of the Sabbath is again enjoined, but as a day of rest for the servants as well as their masters, in commemoration of Israel's redemption from Egyptian bondage. The Sabbath heads the enumeration of the appointed holy seasons (Leviticus 23:3). The SHOWBREAD was changed every Sabbath (Leviticus 24:8). The sacrifice ordained for the Sabbath consisted of two he-lambs of the first year, without blemish, and of two-tenths of an ephah of fine flour for a meal-offering, mingled with oil, and "the drink-offering thereof"; these constituted the burnt offering, and were brought in addition to the continual burnt offering (Numbers 28:9,10). The Sabbath is designated also as "Shabbat Shabbaton," as is the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:31), often with the added qualification of "holy unto Yhwh" (Exodus 16:23, 31:1, 35:2); and it is set apart for a holy convocation (Leviticus 23:3).

From 2 Kings 11:5 it appears that the royal body-guard was changed every Sabbath. The Sabbath and the day of the New Moon were the favorite occasions for consulting the Prophets (2 Kings 4:23).

Non-Observance by Some in Prophetic Times.

That the Sabbath was either improperly observed or sometimes, perhaps, altogether ignored in the time of the Prophets seems to be evidenced by their writings. Amos castigates those that are impatient for the passing of the Sabbath because it interferes with their usurious business (8:5). Isaiah is equally emphatic in condemning his contemporaries for their unworthy celebrations (1:9). Jeremiah exhorts his people to refrain from carrying burdens on the Sabbath (17:21 et seq.). Ezekiel describes the laxness of the fathers, for the purpose of impressing upon his auditors the importance of observing the Sabbath, evidently neglected in his day (20:12,16,20,21,24; 22:8; 23:38). In his scheme of reconstruction the hallowing of the Sabbath holds a prominent place (44:24, 46:2,3). According to him the burnt offering for the Sabbath, provided by the prince (45:17), consisted of six lambs and a ram, with an entire ephah of meal-offering and a "hin" of oil to every ephah (46:4-5).

Isaiah conditions Israel's triumph on the observance of the Sabbath, which may not be set aside for secular pursuits; its observance should be a delight (58:13,14). In his vision of Jerusalem's exaltation the prophet predicts that from one Sabbath to another all flesh will come to worship before Yhwh (66:23). The colonists under Nehemiah charged themselves yearly with a third of a shekel to provide, among other things, for the burnt offerings of the Sabbaths (Nehemiah 10:32). Nevertheless Nehemiah tookthem to task for profaning the day (13:16,17), and to prevent them from continuing to turn it into a market-day he ordered the gates to be closed and kept closed until the end of the Sabbath. This measure, after a while, had the desired effect (10:19 et seq.). Psalms 92 is entitled "A Psalm or Song for the Sabbath Day." As Hosea (1:11) threatens the cessation of the Sabbath and other feasts as a punishment to disloyal Israel, so does the author of Lamentations (2:6) lament that the Sabbath has come to be forgotten in Zion.

—In Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha:

Under the stress of the Syrian persecution, faithful compliance with the strictest interpretation of the Sabbath commandment came to be regarded as a sign of loyalty to God, especially since previously the Sabbath had been habitually desecrated (I Macc. 1:30). Many of the refugees in the mountains, thousands in number, preferred to die rather than violate the Sabbath by hurling stones upon their assailants (I Macc. 2:29 et seq.). This made it necessary for Mattathias to issue an imperative order that the Jews, if attacked, should defend themselves (I Macc. 2:41). Nevertheless, II Macc. 15:1 et seq. relates that Nicanor planned the destruction of the Jews by attacking them on the Sabbath-day, when he had reason to believe they would not attempt to resist. Though the Jews implored him to honor the "day which had been dignified with holiness by the Heavenly Ruler," he persisted, declaring that he was ruler on earth. His expedition, however, failed. A previous raid against Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, under Appolonius, had proved successful (II Macc. 5:25,26).

The Book of Jubilees calls the Sabbath the great sign that work should be done during six days and dropped on the seventh (2:17). The chief orders of angels also were bidden to observe the Sabbath with the Lord (2:18). In selecting Israel as His chosen people, Yhwh purposed to make them a Sabbath-observing people. Eating, drinking, and blessing God are distinguishing features of the Sabbath, besides cessation of work (2:21). The Sabbath was given to Jacob and his seed that they might forever remain "the blessed and holy ones of the first testimony and law," as is the seventh day. Labor thereon entails death, but its defilement leads to violent death (2:25,27). Among the acts prohibited are included preparing food, drawing water, and carrying burdens, however small, out of or into the house, or from one house to another. The Sabbath was hallowed in heaven before it was ordained for earth. Israel alone has the right to observe it (2:28-31). Again, in ch. , buying and selling, making verbal agreements for future fulfilment, and journeying are mentioned as among the acts prohibited, as well as drawing water, carrying burdens, and marital indulgences. Only work that is necessary for the sacrificial Temple service is permitted. Death shall be the penalty for any one who works, walks any distance, tills his land, kindles a fire, loads a beast of burden, travels on a ship, beats or kills any one, slaughters bird or beast, captures in the chase any living creature, or even fasts or wages war, on the Sabbath.

The archangel Michael instructs Seth (Vita Adæ et Evæ, 43) not to mourn on the seventh day (Kautzsch, "Apokryphen," 2:528).

In Josephus and the Classical Writers.

—In Post-Biblical Literature:

Josephus, in the main, follows the Biblical narrative, giving the word "Sabbath" the meaning "rest" ("Ant." 1:1, § 1), and controverting the stupid etymology of the name upheld by Apion, according to whom the Jews were forced to observe the Sabbath by the fact of their being afflicted with bubonic boils known in Egyptian by a word similar to the Hebrew word "sabbath" ("Contra Ap." , § 2). Moreover, his descriptions of Sabbath celebration do not differ from the Biblical. That the beginning and end of the Sabbath were announced by trumpet-blasts ("B. J." 4:9, § 12) is shown by the Mishnah (Suk. 5:5).

Josephus makes much of the spread of Sabbath observance in non-Palestinian cities and among non-Jews ("Contra Ap." , § 39; comp. Philo, "De Vita Moysis," 2:137 [ed. Mangey]). That he does not exaggerate is apparent from the comments of Roman writers on the Jewish Sabbath. Horace, in his "Satires" (1:9,69), speaks of "tricesima Sabbata," which certainly does not refer to a Sabbath so numbered by the Jews. Juvenal ("Satires," 14:96-106), Persius (5:179-184), Martial (4:4,7), and Seneca (Augustine, "De Civitate Dei," 6:11) also refer to the Sabbath. In the Maccabean struggle the observance of the Sabbath came to have special significance as distinguishing the faithful from the half-hearted; but Josephus confirms I Macc. 2:39-41, where the faithful, under Mattathias, decided to resist if attacked on the Sabbath, and not to permit themselves to be destroyed for the sake of literal obedience to the Sabbath law (comp. "Ant." 12:6, § 2). He mentions instances in which the Jews were taken advantage of on the Sabbath-day—for example, by Ptolemy Lagi ("Ant." 12:1; 18:9, § 2). Still, according to Josephus, the Jews carried on offensive warfare on the Sabbath ("B. J." 2:19, § 2). Titus was outwitted by the plea that it was unlawful for Jews to treat of peace on the seventh day (ib. 4:2, § 3). Josephus also publishes decrees exempting Jews from military service on the Sabbath, which exemption gave rise to persecutions under Tiberius ("Ant." 14:10, § 12 et seq.). The Essenes are referred to as very rigorous observers of the Sabbath ("B. J." 2:8, § 9).

In Philo.

In Philo an element of mysticism dominates the interpretation of the Sabbath: the day was really intended for God, a part of whose divine happiness it is to enjoy perfect rest and peace. "Hence the Sabbath, which means 'rest,' is repeatedly said by Moses to be the Sabbath of God, not of men, for the one entity that rests is God." Divine rest, however, does not mean inactivity, but unlabored energy ("De Cherubim," § 26 [1:154-155]). "Seven" being "the image of God," the seventh day is a pattern of the duty of philosophizing ("De Decalogo," § 20 [2:197]). The purpose of man's life being "to follow God" ("De Migratione Abrahami," § 23 [1:456]), the commandment was given for man to observe the seventh day, ceasing from work, and devoting it to philosophy, contemplation, and the improvement ofcharacter ("De Decalogo," § 20 [2:197]). The Sabbath is the most appropriate day for instruction ("De Septenario," § 6 [2:282]).

Aristobulus, a predecessor of Philo, wrote a treatise on the Sabbath, fragments of which are extant. Following the Pythagoreans, he enlarges on the marvelous potency of the number "seven," but endeavors, like Philo after him ("De Septenario," §§ 6-7 [2:281-284]), to prove the observance of the day to be both reasonable and profitable (Eusebius, "Præparatio Evangelica," 13:12, §§ 9-16). He asserts that even Homer and Hesiod observed the Sabbath, citing lines from them and from Linus. According to his understanding, the Sabbath was primarily to be used for searching, the Scriptures, fostering the soul's powers, and striving after the knowledge of truth. The Sabbath might be called the first creation of the (higher) light, in which all is revealed (comp. the benedictions preceding the Shema'; Herzfeld, "Gesch. des Volkes Jisrael," p. 478, Nordhausen, 1867).

In the Talmud.

These Alexandrian speculations partake of the nature of haggadic homilies. In those of the Tannaim and Amoraim similar strains are heard. The Sabbath overshadowed every other day (Pesiḳ. R. 23), while Shammai began even on the first day of the week to make provision for the proper observance of the seventh day. It was Hillel who recalled the dignity of other days (Beẓah 16a). The Sabbath is considered to be equivalent to the Abrahamitic covenant (Mek. 62b; Pesiḳ. R. 23; Agadat Bereshit, ). Its observance forestalls the threefold judgment—the Messianic sufferings, the wars of Gog and Magog, and the final day of retribution (Mek. 50b, 51a; comp. Shab. 118a). The privilege of celebrating the three great pilgrim festivals is the reward for faithful Sabbath observance (Mek. c.). The Sabbath is likened to wholesome spices (Shab. 119a; Gen. R.; Jellinek, "B. H." 1:75). Whosoever keeps the Sabbath holy is protected against temptation to sin (Mek. 50b).

Most characteristic is the dialogue between Rufus and Akiba concerning the two signs of the Covenant—circumcision and the Sabbath (Sanh. 65b; Gen. R.; Pesiḳ. R. 23; Tan., Ki Tissa; Jellinek, "B. H." 1:75). The will of God is alleged to be the sole reason for the day's distinction. As proof that the seventh day is the Sabbath the inability of the necromancer to call a spirit from the River Sambation, and the fact that the grave of Rufus' father sends forth smoke during the six week-days, but ceases to do so on the Sabbath, are adduced. Akiba meets the objection that God violates His own law by sending wind and rain on the Sabbath with the statement that the universe is God's private domain, within which the proprietor is at liberty even on the Sabbath. Moreover, God proved Himself to be a Sabbath observer by interrupting the fall of manna on that day. To observe the Sabbath is regarded as equivalent to having originally instituted it (Mek. 104a, b).

The Sabbath expresses the intimacy between God and Israel; from the days of Creation this relation has existed. Each week-day is associated with another, the first with the second, and so on; but the Sabbath stands alone. In answer to its complaint at being thus neglected, God explained that Israel is its peculiar associate (Beẓah 16a; Gen. R. ). Man's face takes on a new luster on the Sabbath. The two great heavenly lights, the sun and the moon, did not begin to lose their original brilliancy until after the first Sabbath (Mek. 69b; Gen. R. , ). If all Israel were to observe two successive Sabbaths as they should be observed, redemption would ensue at once (Shab. 118b; comp. Yer. Ta'an. 64a); if even one Sabbath were rightly kept the Messiah would appear (Shab. 118b). Simeon ben Yoḥai regarded too much talking as inconsistent with the proper celebration of the day (Yer. Shab. 15b); R. Ze'era reproved his pupils for committing this fault (Shab. 119a, b). Those that observe the Sabbath are ranked with those that give tithes and honor the Law; their rewards are identical (Shab. 119a; Gen. R.; Pesiḳ. R. 23). Two angels, one good, the other evil, accompany every Jew on Sabbath eve from the synagogue to the house. If the Sabbath lamp is found lighted and the table spread, the good angel prays that this may be the case also on the following Sabbath, and the evil angel is compelled to say "Amen" to this; but if no preparations for the Sabbath are seen, the evil angel pronounces a curse, and the good angel is compelled to say "Amen" (Shab. 119b).

Haggadic References.

The law of the Sabbath is equal to all the other laws and commandments in the Torah (Yer. Ber. 3c; Yer. Ned. 38b; Ex. R. ). The ẓiẓit is intended to be a constant reminder of the Sabbath (Yer. Ber. 3c). "Queen" and "bride" are two typical appellations for the day (Shab. 119a; B. Ḳ. 32a, b; Gen. R. ); it is the signet on the ring (ib.). A special soul ("neshamah yeterah") is given to man on the eve of the Sabbath, and leaves him again at its close (Beẓah 16a; Ta'an. 27b). Simeon ben Laḳish explains the repetition of the Sabbath commandment by relating a parable of a father who sent his son to a merchant with a bottle and some money. The son broke the bottle and lost the money, whereupon the father admonished him to be more careful and gave him another bottle and some more money. Hence comes the use of the word

The Sabbath is a foretaste of the world to come (Gen. R. ,; Ber. 57b ["one-sixtieth of the world to come"]). The example of the Creator iscited to teach that all work, however important, should cease as soon as the Sabbath approaches; for God was about to create bodies for the demons whose souls He had fashioned when the Sabbath came and prevented the execution of the intention (Gen. R. ). The Patriarchs are said to have kept the Sabbath even before the revelation on Sinai (Gen. R.; Tan., Naso, 33 [ed. Buber, p. 22a, b]).

Dress.

According to the testimony of the Haggadab, the Sabbath was looked upon and observed as a day of joy. Samuel ben Naḥman declared that the Sabbath was intended to be a day of good cheer (Yer. Shab. 15a; Ḥiyya b. Abba in Pes. R. ). Fasting was forbidden upon it (Ber. 31b), even up to noon (Yer. Ta'an. 67a; Yer. Ned. 40d). Expenses incurred for a proper, joyful Sabbath celebration do not impoverish (Gen. R. ); on the contrary, riches are the reward of those that enjoy the Sabbath (Shab. 118a). Hence the special blessing for the Sabbath in Genesis 2:3, to vouchsafe impunity to the weak for excesses in eating and drinking committed in honor of that day (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." 1:111). Three meals were considered indispensable (Shab. 118b). Of Ḥanina and Hoshaiah, disciples of R. Johanan, it is reported that they occupied themselves on Friday with the story of creation, which miraculously enabled them to procure a fattened calf for their Sabbath meal (Sanh. 65b, 67b) when they were too poor to prepare properly for the day. Nothing should be eaten on Friday later than the first hour after noon, in order that the Sabbath meal may be better enjoyed (Pes. 99b; Tos. Ber. 5:1; Yer. Pes. 87b). Change of garments was also deemed essential to a proper observance; white Sabbath garments are mentioned in Shab. 25b. Every person should have at least two sets of garments, one for week-days and another for the Sabbath (Yer. Peah 21b); Ruth is referred to as an example (Ruth R. 3:3; Pes. R.; Shab. 113b). The Jews of Tiberias, who plead their poverty as a reason for not being able to celebrate the day, are advised to make some change in their dress (ib.). To this refers also the proverb, "Rather turn thy Sabbath into a profane day [in dress], than be dependent on the assistance of others" (Pes. 112a). The myrtle was used for purposes of decoration on the Sabbath (Shab. 33b). It was noticed with displeasure that Aḥa ben Ḥanina wore mended sandals on the Sabbath (Shab. 114a). The Sabbath was given to instructive sermons and discourses (Yer. Soṭah 16d; Num. R.; Deut. R. ). To run to the bet ha-midrash on the Sabbath to hear a discourse does not constitute desecration (Ber. 6b). Rain on Friday is not welcome, as it interferes with Sabbath preparations, while sunshine on the Sabbath is a divine boon to the poor (Ta'an. 8b).

The Haggadah clearly shows that the Sabbath-day was celebrated in a spirit of fervent joyfulness, which was by no means intended to be repressed, and which was not chilled or checked by the halakic construction of the Sabbath commandments. The Sabbath, indeed, was deserving of the designation of "mattanah á¹­obah" (a precious gift from on high; Shab. 10b).

Probable Lunar Origin.

—Critical View:

The origin of the Sabbath, as well as the true meaning of the name, is uncertain. The earliest Biblical passages which mention it (Exodus 20:10, 34:21; Deuteronomy 5:14; Amos 8:5) presuppose its previous existence, and analysis of all the references to it in the canon makes it plain that its observance was neither general nor altogether spontaneous in either pre-exilic or post-exilic Israel. It was probably originally connected in some manner with the cult of the moon, as indeed is suggested by the frequent mention of Sabbath and New-Moon festivals in the same sentence (Isaiah 1:13; Amos 8:5; H Kings 4:23). The old Semites worshiped the moon and the stars (Hommel, "Der Gestirndienst der Alten Araber"). Nomads and shepherds, they regarded the night as benevolent, the day with its withering heat as malevolent. In this way the moon ("Sinai" = "moon ["sin"] mountain") became central in their pantheon. The moon, however, has four phases in approximately 28 days, and it seemingly comes to a standstill every seven days. Days on which the deity rested were considered taboo, or ill-omened. New work could not be begun, nor unfinished work continued, on such days. The original meaning of "Shabbat" conveys this idea (the derivation from "sheba'" is entirely untenable). If, as was done by Prof. Sayce (in his Hibbert Lectures) and by Jastrow (in "American Journal of Theology," April, 1898), it can be identified in the form "shabbaton" with the "Shabattum" of the Assyrian list of foreign words, which is defined as "um nuḥ libbi" = "day of propitiation" (Jensen, in "Sabbath-School Times," 1892), it is a synonym for "'Aẓeret" and means a day on which one's actions are restricted, because the deity has to be propitiated. If, with Toy (in "Jour. Bib. Lit." 18:194), it is assumed that the signification is "rest," or "season of rest" (from the verb "to rest," "to cease [from labor]"; though "divider" and "division of time" are likewise said to have been the original significations; comp. also Barth, "Nominalbildungen," and Lagarde, "Nominalbildung"), the day is so designated because, being taboo, it demands abstinence from work and other occupations. The Sabbath depending, in Israel's nomadic period, upon the observation of the phases of the moon, it could not, according to this view, be a fixed day. When the Israelites settled in the land and became farmers, their new life would have made it desirable that the Sabbath should come at regular intervals, and the desired change would have been made all the more easily as they had abandoned the lunar religion.

Assyrian Analogues.

Dissociated from the moon, the Sabbath developed into a day of rest for the workers and animals on the farm (Deuteronomy 5:14; Exodus 20:10). Traces of the old taboo are, however, still found. In Amos 8:5 it is the fear of evil consequences that keeps the impatient merchants from plying their wicked trade. The multitude of sacrifices (Isaiah 1:8; Hosea 2:11) on Sabbath and New Moon indicates the anxiety on those particular days to propitiate the deity. Closer contact with Assyro-Babylonians from the eighth to the sixth pre-Christian century probably revitalized the older idea of taboo. The assumptionthat the Hebrews borrowed the institution from the Babylonians, which was first suggested by Lotz ("Quæstiones de Historia Sabbati"), is untenable; but that the Exile strengthened the awe in which the day was held can not be denied. It having become a purely social institution, a day of rest for the farmers, the taboo element in course of time had lost its emphasis. The Assyro-Babylonians may have had similar days of abstinence or propitiation (the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th of the month Elul), and contact with them may have served to lend the Jewish Sabbath a more austere character. The Assyrian calendar seems to disclose an effort to get rid of the movable Sabbath in favor of the fixed. If after the twenty-eighth day two days are intercalated as new-moon days, the 19th day becomes the 49th from the beginning of the next preceding month, as in the Feast of Weeks, in connection with which the emphasis on "complete Sabbaths" ("sheba' Shabbot temimot"; Leviticus 23:15) is noteworthy. At all events, in the Priestly Code, Sabbath violation is represented as entailing death (Numbers 15:32-36). The prohibition against kindling fire (Exodus 35:3) probably refers to producing fire by the fire-drill or by rubbing two sticks together; this was the crime of the man put to death according to Numbers 15:32-36, the "meḳoshesh" (see also Beẓah 4:7), the presence of fire being considered, if the analogy with superstitious practises elsewhere is decisive, a very grave sign of disrespect to the deity.

But Hebrew institutions are often in direct antagonism to similar ones among the Assyro-Babylonians. The seventh days in the Babylonian scheme were days of ill omen. The prophets of the Exile laid especial emphasis on the fact that the Sabbath is a day of joy, as did those of the Assyrian period on the futility of the propitiating sacrifices (Isaiah 1). The Priestly Code could not neutralize this view. Its rigorous observance found acceptance only among the "Nibdalim" (the Separatists; see Nehemiah 10:31). Every festival in the Biblical scheme is associated with a historical event. The connection of the Sabbath with the Exodus, in Deuteronomy 5:14-15, was altogether vague; and to supply a more definite relation to an event in Israel's history the Sabbath was declared to have had an important significance in the desert when manna fell (Exodus 16:27 et seq.). The Decalogue of Exodus supplies a theological reason for the observance of the day; its phraseology reflects that of Genesis 2:1 et seq. Both—this explanation and the story in Genesis—are among the latest additions to the Pentateuch.